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Artificial Intelligence Industry In China

The expert system market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar market. The roots of China’s AI development began in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms stressing science and innovation as the nation’s main productive force.

The preliminary phases of China’s AI advancement were slow and came across considerable challenges due to absence of resources and skill. At the beginning China lagged the majority of Western countries in regards to AI development. A majority of the research was led by scientists who had gotten college abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has gradually established a national program for expert system development and became among the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) launched its thirteenth five-year strategy in which it aimed to become a worldwide AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI groups” consisting of fifteen China-based companies, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation needed] Each business ought to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial recognition, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s rapid AI advancement has actually significantly affected Chinese society in numerous locations, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transportation, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top industries that would be the most affected by more AI implementation.

The personal sector, university laboratories, and the armed force are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are couple of current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China released the Data Security Law of individuals’s Republic of China, its first national law dealing with AI-related ethical issues. In October 2022, the United States federal government announced a series of export controls and trade constraints intended to restrict China’s access to innovative computer chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the effects of the Chinese federal government’s censorship routine on the development of generative expert system and skill acquisition with state of the country’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and advancement of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the statement by Deng Xiaoping of the significance of science and technology for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research and advancement did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars believe this is because of the influence of cybernetics from the Soviet Union regardless of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese scientists launched AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a normally conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI advancement in China was tough so China’s government approached these obstacles by sending out Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and additional supplying government funds for research study projects. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was established in September 1981 and was authorized by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation required] In 1987, China’s very first research publication on expert system was released by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have actually been part of China’s nationwide innovation plan. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese government has even more broadened its research study and development funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research tasks has actually dramatically increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was included in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), released by the State Council. [2] In the same year, artificial intelligence was likewise discussed in the l lth five-year strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) developed a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Expert System Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it ended up being the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of synthetic intelligence. The first award ceremony was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was kept in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was held in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s statement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a substantial milestone in China’s advancement of expert system. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China released “A Next Generation Expert System Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the file, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council urged governing bodies in China to promote the development of expert system. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a tactical innovation that has ended up being a “focus of worldwide competition”. [14]:2 The document advised substantial investment in a variety of tactical locations associated with AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and economic sectors. On the event of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the very first plenary meeting of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University wrote in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” between financial and military ends is a vital component to being a fantastic power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”artificial intelligence plus” was proposed to be raised to a tactical level. [16] The very same year witnessed the introduction of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their very first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation needed]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its very first artificial intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council budgeted $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to accomplish this the State Council specified the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, along with public and private investments. [14] Some of the specified motivations that the State Council offered for pursuing its AI technique consist of the capacity of expert system for commercial change, better social governance and preserving social stability. [14] As of completion of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI business throughout fundamental, technical, and application layers, with related industries valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of synthetic intelligence broadened to numerous fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of big language designs (LLMs), at the start of 2020, Chinese scientists began developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal big model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Expert system launched China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security jointly issued the regulations concerning deepfakes, which became effective in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China launched its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposal on standard generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specifications for data collection and model training was issued in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government released its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to construct AI policy discussion with developing nations. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has actually expressed issue over AI safety risks, including abuse of information or using AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors created with generative artificial intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang launched the AI+ Initiative, which means to incorporate AI into China’s genuine economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China announced that it presented a large language model trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s biggest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in revenue over the last year. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third largest. The fourth and 5th largest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong listed AI company 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were applauded by investors as China’s new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese government. [33]

Since 2024, many Chinese technology companies such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have released AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Information Technology

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a Brand-new American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – believes that being at the leading edge of AI innovation will be vital to the future of worldwide military and financial power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council intends for China to make basic contributions to basic AI theory and to solidify its place as a global leader in AI research study. Further, the State Council intends for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s commercial updating and financial change” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council aims to have China be the worldwide leader in the development of expert system theory and technology. The State Council claims that China will have established a “mature new-generation AI theory and innovation system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese government “looks for to combine state planning and control while some functional flexibility for firms. In this context, China’s AI firms are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and shields them from foreign competition through domestic market protections, developing asymmetric advantages as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year plan declared AI as a leading research concern and ranks AI first among “frontier markets” that the Chinese government aims to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI industry is a tactical sector often supported by China’s government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing mainly concentrated on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The government funding likewise supported numerous AI R&D in the economic sector through endeavor capitals that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic firm research revealed that, while China is enormously purchasing all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and self-governing lorries are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to nationwide guidance on developing China’s modern commercial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI innovation in speculative areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and local commercial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing market, heavily focuses on automation and AI facilities while Wuhan focuses more on AI implementations and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and national ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI labs. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese groups won the leading prize at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a global competitors for computer vision systems. [41] Many of these systems are now being integrated into China’s domestic security network. [42]

Interdisciplinary cooperations play an important role in China’s AI R&D, consisting of academic-corporate collaboration, public-private collaborations, and worldwide partnerships and jobs with corporate-government collaborations are the most typical. [1] China ranked in the top three worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the total variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic collaboration in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of worldwide AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are generally sponsored by the government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s biggest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

Since 2023, 47% of the world’s leading AI researchers had finished their undergraduate studies in China. [28]:101

According to scholastic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in controling AI services and imposing responsibilities on AI business, the general technique to its policy is loose and shows a pro-growth policy beneficial to China’s AI market. [28]:96 In July 2024, the government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s large population generates a huge quantity of available information for companies and researchers, which offers an important benefit in the race of big data. Since 2024 [update], China has the world’s biggest variety of web users, producing big amounts of information for maker knowing and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial acknowledgment

Facial recognition is one of the most commonly used AI applications in China. Collecting these large amounts of information from its locals helps further train and expand AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and valuable for corporations to additional AI R&D but likewise uses incredible financial possible bring in both global and domestic firms to join the AI market. The extreme advancement of the information and communication innovation (ICT) market and AI chipsets over the last few years are 2 examples of this. [47] China has ended up being the world’s largest exporter of facial acknowledgment technology, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and content controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) released draft steps mentioning that tech companies will be obliged to make sure AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP including Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user information. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, companies bear legal obligation for training data and content created through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese government mandated that generative synthetic intelligence-produced material might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a big language model to the public, companies must seek approval from the CAC to license that the model declines to answer particular questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions connected to politically delicate subjects such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre or contrasts between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh should be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was to Hugging Face, a business that keeps libraries consisting of training data sets typically used for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of the People’s Daily, the official paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, provides local companies with training data that CCP leaders consider acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily released a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has alerted that the Chinese government uses generative expert system to interfere in foreign elections by spreading out disinformation and provoking discussions on divisive political issues. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system design DeepSeek has been reported to decline to address concerns relating to aspects of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most agencies [who?] hold positive views about AI’s financial impact on China’s long-term financial growth. In the past, traditional industries in China have actually had problem with the increase in labor expenses due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional expenses are expected to minimize while an increase in effectiveness creates revenue development. [60] Some highlight the significance of a clear policy and governmental assistance in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of correctly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers may be the most adversely affected by China’s AI advancement since of rising demands for workers with innovative abilities. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth might be disproportionately divided as a majority of AI-related commercial advancement is focused in seaside areas rather than inland. [61]

A prominent choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright security. [28]:98

Military effect

China seeks to construct a “first-rate” armed force by “intelligentization” with a particular concentrate on making use of unmanned weapons and artificial intelligence. [62] [63] It is researching numerous kinds of air, land, sea, and undersea autonomous cars. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial lorries at an airshow. A media report launched later on showed a computer simulation of a comparable swarm development finding and destroying a rocket launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications suggested that China is likewise developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is mainly influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a widening “generational space” in contrast to the U.S. military. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to use AI for making use of big troves of intelligence, producing a typical operating photo, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s reaction to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to integrate sensing units and weapons with AI and a vigorous network. [65] [66]

Twelve classifications of military applications of AI have actually been recognized: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software application, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software application, choice assistance, software application, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software application. [67]

China’s management of its AI environment contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In general, few borders exist between Chinese industrial companies, university lab, the military, and the central federal government. As an outcome, the Chinese federal government has a direct means of directing AI development top priorities and accessing innovation that was seemingly developed for civilian functions. To even more strengthen these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is planned to speed the transfer of AI technology from industrial business and research study institutions to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese federal government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower expenses of information identifying to produce the large databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of information by 2020, with the possible to have over 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is investing in the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily relevant AI applications, possibly approving it legal access to U.S. technology and intellectual residential or commercial property. [69] Chinese endeavor capital financial investment in U.S. AI companies between 2010 and 2017 totaled an approximated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration issued an executive order to avoid foreign investments, “especially those from rival or adversarial countries,” from purchasing U.S. technology companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. innovations in which Chinese government has been investing, consisting of “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] sophisticated tidy energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have actually established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unapproved due to its model use prohibition for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the first scholastic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly since China faces obstacles in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and scientists. [21] Over half of the data scientists in the United States have actually been working in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the same percentage of data scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused specialists and research products. [61]:8 Although China exceeded the United States in the number of research papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its released documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China specifically wish to attend to military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, among China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently developed the first children’s curriculum in military AI in the world. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese trainees studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database kept by an American thinktank, the percentage increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical concerns

For the past years, there are conversations about AI security and ethical issues in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the very first national ethical guideline, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular emphasis on user defense, data privacy, and security. [78] This document acknowledges the power of AI and fast innovation adaptation by the big corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that humans will stay completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Expert system released the Beijing AI concepts calling for essential needs in long-term research and preparation of AI ethical concepts. [79]

Data security has actually been the most typical subject in AI ethical discussion worldwide, and many nationwide federal governments have actually developed legislation attending to data privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of individuals’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to brand-new obstacles raised by AI development. [80] [initial research?] In 2021, China’s brand-new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulatory structure classifying all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This indicates all tech business in China are required to categorize their information into categories listed in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and deal with data transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program artificial intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disputes associated with ecommerce and internet-related intellectual home claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court by means of videoconference and AI examines the evidence presented and uses pertinent legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low punishments have been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are issues about whether AI based on fragmented judicial data can reach objective decisions. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Government and Law, composes that AI-technology business might wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party management, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary space of judges are deliberate goals of SCR [smart court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric business and start-ups include Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have actually gotten attention for facial recognition, sound recognition and drone innovations. [87]

China’s government takes a market-oriented method to AI, and has looked for to motivate private tech companies in establishing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champions”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language design Hunyuan for business usage on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups include Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading startup. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese federal government’s dedication to international AI leadership and technological competitors was driven by its previous underperformance in development which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are traditionally embedded causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards securing a worldwide technological supremacy – China missed out on both industrial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that came from in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s federal government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital innovation consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” location and to pursue the national rejuvenation proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

A post released by the Center for a Brand-new American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government officials demonstrated incredibly keen understanding of the problems surrounding AI and worldwide security. This includes understanding of the U.S. AI policy conversations,” and recommended that “the U.S. policymaking community to likewise prioritize cultivating expertise and understanding of AI developments in China” and “financing, focus, and a willingness amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive necessary modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and enormous untapped capacity, but the West has world-leading knowledge and a strong research culture. Instead of fret about China’s development, it would be smart for Western nations to concentrate on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship regime has actually stunted the development of generative artificial intelligence [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations wrote that the development of AI creates obstacles for holistic national security, consisting of the threats that AI will increase social tensions or have destabilizing impacts on global relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong compete that capitalist application of AI will lead to higher injustice of workers and more severe social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the advancement of AI has increased the power of platform business like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, resulting in higher capital build-up and political power in less economic stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state should be the main responsible actor in the location of generative AI (developing new content like music or video). [28]:92 Gao writes that military usage of AI threats intensifying military competitors in between nations which the effect of AI in military matters will not be restricted to one country however will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues in between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential threat from synthetic intelligence have happened. [92]

Public ballot

The Chinese public is usually positive relating to AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted across 28 nations found that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI exceed the dangers, the highest of any country in the research study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university trainees found that 80% agreed or strongly agreed that AI will do more good than harm for society, and 31% believed it must be regulated by the government. [93]

Human rights

The commonly utilized AI facial acknowledgment has raised issues. [94] According to The New York Times, deployment of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to discover Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a federal government intentionally utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is said to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have actually discovered that in China, locations experiencing greater rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial acknowledgment technology, especially by regional community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Artificial intelligence.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence companies
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.